Prolog integration and migration — The Logtalk Handbook v3.47.0 documentation

# Prolog integration and migration

An application may include plain Prolog files, Prolog modules, and Logtalk objects. This is a perfectly valid way of developing a complex application and, in some cases, it might be the most appropriated solution. Modules may be used for legacy code or when a simple encapsulation mechanism is adequate. Logtalk objects may be used when more powerful encapsulation, abstraction, and reuse features are required.

This section provides tips for integrating and migrating plain Prolog code and Prolog module code to Logtalk. Step-by-step instructions are provided for encapsulating plain Prolog code in objects, converting Prolog modules into objects, and compiling and reusing Prolog modules as objects from inside Logtalk. An interesting application of the techniques described in this section is a solution for running a Prolog application which uses modules on a Prolog compiler with no module system. The `wrapper` tool can be used to help in migrating Prolog code.

## Source files with both Prolog code and Logtalk code

Logtalk source files may contain plain Prolog code intermixed with Logtalk code. The Logtalk compiler simply copies the plain Prolog code as-is to the generated Prolog file. With Prolog modules, it is assumed that the module code starts with a `module/1-2` directive and ends at the end of the file. There is no module ending directive which would allowed us to define more than one module per file. In fact, most if not all Prolog module systems always define a single module per file. Some of them mandate that the `module/1-2` directive be the first term on a source file. As such, when the Logtalk compiler finds a `module/1-2` directive, it assumes that all code that follows until the end of the file belongs to the module.

## Encapsulating plain Prolog code in objects

Most applications consist of several plain Prolog source files, each one defining a few top-level predicates and auxiliary predicates that are not meant to be directly called by the user. Encapsulating plain Prolog code in objects allows us to make clear the different roles of each predicate, to hide implementation details, to prevent auxiliary predicates from being called outside the object, and to take advantage of Logtalk advanced code encapsulating and reusing features.

Encapsulating Prolog code using Logtalk objects is simple. First, for each source file, add an opening object directive, object/1-5, to the beginning of the file and an ending object directive, end_object/0, to end of the file. Choose an object name that reflects the purpose of source file code (this is a good opportunity for code refactoring if necessary). Second, add public/1 predicate directives for the top-level predicates that are used directly by the user or called from other source files. Third, we need to be able to call from inside an object predicates defined in other source files/objects. The easiest solution, which has the advantage of not requiring any changes to the predicate definitions, is to use the uses/2 directive. If your Prolog compiler supports cross-referencing tools, you may use them to help you make sure that all calls to predicates on other source files/objects are listed in the uses/2 directives. The Logtalk `wrapper` tool can also help in detecting cross predicate calls. Compiling the resulting objects with the Logtalk unknown_predicates and portability flags set to `warning` will help you identify calls to predicates defined on other converted source files and possible portability issues.

### Prolog multifile predicates

Prolog multifile predicates are used when clauses for the same predicate are spread among several source files. When encapsulating plain Prolog code that uses multifile predicates, is often the case that the clauses of the multifile predicates get spread between different objects and categories but conversion is straight-forward. In the Logtalk object (or category) holding the multifile predicate primary declaration, add a predicate scope directive and a multifile/1 directive. In all other objects (or categories) defining clauses for the multifile predicate, add a `multifile/1` directive and predicate clauses using the format:

    :- multifile(Entity::Name/Arity).

    Entity::Functor(...) :-
        ...

See the User Manual section on the `multifile/1` predicate directive for more information. An alternative solution is to simply keep the clauses for the multifile predicates as plain Prolog code and define, if necessary, a parametric object to encapsulate all predicates working with the multifile predicate clauses. For example, assume the following `multifile/1` directive:

    % city(Name, District, Population, Neighbors)
    :- multifile(city/4).

We can define a parametric object with `city/4` as its identifier:

    :- object(city(_Name, _District, _Population, _Neighbors)).

        % predicates for working with city/4 clauses

    :- end_object.

This solution is preferred when the multifile predicates are used to represent large tables of data. See the section on Parametric objects for more details.

## Converting Prolog modules into objects

Converting Prolog modules into objects may allow an application to run on a wider range of Prolog compilers, overcoming compatibility problems. Some Prolog compilers don’t support a module system. Among those Prolog compilers which support a module system, the lack of standardization leads to several issues, specially with semantics, operators, and meta-predicates. In addition, the conversion allows you to take advantage of Logtalk more powerful abstraction and reuse mechanisms such as separation between interface from implementation, inheritance, parametric objects, and categories.

Converting a Prolog module into an object is easy as long as the directives used in the module are supported by Logtalk (see below). Assuming that this is the case, apply the following steps:

1. Convert the module `module/1` directive into an opening object directive, object/1-5, using the module name as the object name. For `module/2` directives apply the same conversion and convert the list of exported predicates into Logtalk public/1 predicate directives.

2. Add a closing object directive, end_object/0, at the end of the module code.

3. Convert any `export/1` directives into `public/1` predicate directives.

4. Convert any `use_module/1` directives into `use_module/2` directives (see next section).

5. Convert any `use_module/2` directives referencing other modules also being converted to objects into Logtalk uses/2 directives. If the referenced modules are not being converted into objects, keep the `use_module/2` directives but change the first argument to be the module name.

6. Convert each `reexport/1` directive into a uses/2 directive and `public/1` predicate directives (see next section).

7. Convert any `meta_predicate/1` directives into Logtalk meta_predicate/1 directives by replacing the module meta-argument indicator, `:`, with the Logtalk meta-argument indicator, `0`. Closures must be represented using an integer denoting the number of additional arguments that will be appended to construct a goal. Arguments which are not meta-arguments are represented by the `*` character.

8. Convert any explicit qualified calls to module predicates to messages by replacing the `:/2` operator with the ::/2 message sending operator when the referenced modules are also being converted into objects. Calls in the pseudo-module `user` can be encapsulated using the {}/1 Logtalk external call control construct. You can also use instead an uses/2 directive where the first argument would be the atom `user` and the second argument a list of all external predicates. This alternative has the advantage of not requiring changes to the code making the predicate calls.

9. If your module uses the database built-in predicates to implement module local mutable state using dynamic predicates, add both private/1 and dynamic/1 directives for each dynamic predicate.

10. If your module declares or defines clauses for multifile module predicates, replace the `:/2` functor by `::/2` in the `multifile/1` directives and in the clause heads for all modules defining the multifile predicates that are also being converted into objects; if that is not the case, just keep the `multifile/1` directives and the clause heads as-is).

11. Compile the resulting objects with the Logtalk unknown_predicates, and portability flags set to `warning` to help you locate possible issues and calls to proprietary Prolog built-in predicates and to predicates defined on other converted modules. In order to improve code portability, check the Logtalk library for possible alternatives to the use of proprietary Prolog built-in predicates.

Before converting your modules to objects, you may try to compile them first as objects (using the logtalk_compile/1 Logtalk built-in predicates) to help identify any issues that must be dealt with when doing the conversion to objects. Note that Logtalk supports compiling Prolog files as Logtalk source code without requiring changes to the file name extensions.

## Compiling Prolog modules as objects

A possible alternative to port Prolog code to Logtalk is to compile the Prolog source files using the `logtalk_load/1-2` and `logtalk_compile/1-2` predicates. The Logtalk compiler provides partial support for compiling Prolog modules as Logtalk objects. This support may allow using modules from a backend Prolog system in a different backend Prolog system although its main purpose is to help in porting existing Prolog code to Logtalk in order to benefit from its extended language features and its developer tools. Why partial support? Although there is a ISO Prolog standard for modules, it is (rightfully) ignored by most implementers and vendors (due to its flaws and deviation from common practice). In addition, there is no de facto standard for module systems, despite otherwise frequent bogus claims. Systems differences include the set of implemented module directives, the directive semantics, the handling of operators, the locality of flags, and on the integration of term-expansion mechanisms (when provided). Follows a discussion of the limitations of this approach that you should be aware.

### Supported module directives

Currently, Logtalk supports the following module directives:

`module/1`

  The module name becomes the object name.

`module/2`

  The module name becomes the object name. The exported predicates become public object predicates. The exported grammar rule non-terminals become public grammar rule non-terminals. The exported operators become public object operators but are not active elsewhere when loading the code.

`use_module/2`

  This directive is compiled as a Logtalk uses/2 directive in order to ensure correct compilation of the module predicate clauses. The first argument of this directive must be the module name (an atom), not a module file specification (the adapter files attempt to use the Prolog dialect level term-expansion mechanism to find the module name from the module file specification). Note that the module is not automatically loaded by Logtalk (as it would be when compiling the directive using Prolog instead of Logtalk; the programmer may also want the specified module to be compiled as an object). The second argument must be a predicate indicator (`Name/Arity`), a grammar rule non-terminal indicator (`Name//Arity`), a operator declaration, or a list of predicate indicators, grammar rule non-terminal indicators, and operator declarations. Predicate aliases can be declared using the notation `Name/Arity as Alias/Arity` or, in alternative, the notation `Name/Arity:Alias/Arity`. Similar for non-terminal aliases.

`export/1`

  Exported predicates are compiled as public object predicates. The argument must be a predicate indicator (`Name/Arity`), a grammar rule non-terminal indicator (`Name//Arity`), an operator declaration, or a list of predicate indicators, grammar rule non-terminal indicators, and operator declarations.

`reexport/2`

  Reexported predicates are compiled as public object predicates. The first argument is the module name. The second argument must be a predicate indicator (`Name/Arity`), a grammar rule non-terminal indicator (`Name//Arity`), an operator declaration, or a list of predicate indicators, grammar rule non-terminal indicators, and operator declarations. Predicate aliases can be declared using the notation `Name/Arity as Alias/Arity` or, in alternative, the notation `Name/Arity:Alias/Arity`. Similar for non-terminal aliases.

`meta_predicate/1`

  Module meta-predicates become object meta-predicates. Only predicate arguments marked as goals or closures (using an integer) are interpreted as meta-arguments. In addition, Prolog module meta-predicates and Logtalk meta-predicates don’t share the same explicit-qualification calling semantics: in Logtalk, meta-arguments are always called in the context of the sender.

A common issue when compiling modules as objects is the use of the atoms `dynamic`, `discontiguous`, and `multifile` as operators in directives. For better portability avoid this usage. For example, write:

    :- dynamic([foo/1, bar/2]).

instead of:

    :- dynamic foo/1, bar/2.

Another common issue is missing `meta_predicate/1`, `dynamic/1`, `discontiguous/1`, and `multifile/1` predicate directives. The Logtalk compiler supports detection of missing directives (by setting its missing_directives flag to `warning`).

When compiling modules as objects, you probably don’t need event support turned on. You may use the events compiler flag to `deny` with the Logtalk compiling and loading built-in methods for a small performance gain for the compiled code.

### Unsupported module directives

The `reexport/1` and `use_module/1` directives are not directly supported by the Logtalk compiler. But most Prolog adapter files provide support for compiling these directives using Logtalk first stage of its term-expansion mechanism. Nevertheless, these directives can be converted, respectively, into a sequence of `:- use_module/2` and `export/1` directives and `use_module/2` directives by finding which predicates exported by the specified modules are reexported or imported into the module containing the directive. For `use_module/1` directives, finding the names of the imported predicates that are actually used is easy. First, comment out the and compile the file (making sure that the unknown_predicates compiler flag is set to `warning`). Logtalk will print a warning with a list of predicates that are called but never defined. Second, use these list to replace the `use_module/1` directives by `use_module/2` directives. You should then be able to compile the modified Prolog module as an object.

### Modules using a term-expansion mechanism

Although Logtalk supports term and goal expansion mechanisms, the semantics are different from similar mechanisms found in some Prolog compilers. In particular, Logtalk does not support defining term and goal expansions clauses in a source file for expanding the source file itself. Logtalk forces a clean separation between expansions clauses and the source files that will be subject to source-to-source expansions by using hook objects. But hook objects also provide a working solution here when the expansion code is separated from the code to be expanded. Logtalk supports using a module as a hook object as long as its name doesn’t coincide with the name of an object and that the module uses `term_expansion/2` and `goal_expansion/2` predicates. Assuming that’s the case, before attempting to compile the modules as objects, the default hook object is set to the module containing the expansion code. For example, if the expansions stored in a `system` module:

    | ?- set_logtalk_flag(hook, system).
    ...

This, however, may not be enough as some expansions may stored in more than one module. A common example is to use a module named `prolog`. It is also common to store the expansions in `user`. The Logtalk library provides a solution for these scenarios. Using the `hook_flows` library we can select multiple hook objects or hook modules. For example, assuming expansions stored on both `user` and `system` modules:

    | ?- logtalk_load(hook_flows(loader)).
    ...

    | ?- set_logtalk_flag(hook, hook_set([user, system])).
    ...

After these queries, we can try to compile the modules and look for other porting or portability issues.

## Dealing with proprietary Prolog directives and predicates

Most Prolog compilers define proprietary, non-standard, directives and predicates that may be used in both plain code and module code. Non-standard Prolog built-in predicates are usually not problematic, as Logtalk is usually able to identify and compile them correctly (but see the notes on built-in meta-predicates for possible caveats). However, Logtalk will generate compilation errors on source files containing proprietary directives unless you first specify how the directives should be handled. Several actions are possible on a per-directive basis: ignoring the directive (i.e. do not copy the directive, although a goal can be proved as a consequence), rewriting and copy the directive to the generated Prolog files, or rewriting and recompiling the resulting directive. To specify these actions, the adapter files contain clauses for the `'$lgt_prolog_term_expansion'/2` predicate. For example, assume that a given Prolog compiler defines a `comment/2` directive for predicates using the format:

    :- comment(foo/2, "Brief description of the predicate").

We can rewrite this predicate into a Logtalk `info/2` directive by defining a suitable clause for the `'$lgt_prolog_term_expansion'/2` predicate:

    '$lgt_prolog_term_expansion'(
            comment(F/A, String),
            info(F/A, [comment is Atom])
    ) :-
        atom_codes(Atom, String).

This Logtalk feature can be used to allow compilation of legacy Prolog code without the need of changing the sources. When used, is advisable to set the portability compiler flag to `warning` in order to more easily identify source files that are likely non-portable across Prolog compilers.

A second example, where a proprietary Prolog directive is discarded after triggering a side effect:

    '$lgt_prolog_term_expansion'(
            load_foreign_files(Files,Libs,InitRoutine),
            []
    ) :-
        load_foreign_files(Files,Libs,InitRoutine).

In this case, although the directive is not copied to the generated Prolog file, the foreign library files are loaded as a side effect of the Logtalk compiler calling the `'$lgt_prolog_term_expansion'/2` hook predicate.

## Calling Prolog module predicates

Prolog module predicates can be called from within objects or categories by simply using explicit module qualification, i.e. by writing `Module:Goal` or `Goal@Module` (depending on the module system). Logtalk also supports the use of `use_module/2` directives in object and categories (with the restriction that the first argument of the directive must be the actual module name and not the module file name or the module file path). In this case, these directives are parsed in a similar way to Logtalk uses/2 directives, with calls to the specified module predicates being automatically translated to `Module:Goal` calls.

As a general rule, the Prolog modules should be loaded (e.g. in the auxiliary Logtalk loader files) before compiling objects that make use of module predicates. Moreover, the Logtalk compiler does not generate code for the automatic loading of modules referenced in `use_module/1-2` directives. This is a consequence of the lack of standardization of these directives, whose first argument can be a module name, a straight file name, or a file name using some kind of library notation, depending on the backend Prolog compiler. Worse, modules are sometimes defined in files with names different from the module names requiring finding, opening, and reading the file in order to find the actual module name.

Logtalk supports the declaration of predicate aliases in `use_module/2` directives used within object and categories. For example, the ECLiPSe IC Constraint Solvers define a `::/2` variable domain operator that clashes with the Logtalk `::/2` message sending operator. We can solve the conflict by writing:

    :- use_module(ic, [(::)/2 as ins/2]).

With this directive, calls to the `ins/2` predicate alias will be automatically compiled by Logtalk to calls to the `::/2` predicate in the `ic` module.

Logtalk allows you to send a message to a module in order to call one of its predicates. This is usually not advised as it implies a performance penalty when compared to just using the `Module:Call` notation. Moreover, this works only if there is no object with the same name as the module you are targeting. This feature is necessary, however, in order to properly support compilation of modules containing `use_module/2` directives as objects. If the modules specified in the `use_module/2` directives are not compiled as objects but are instead loaded as-is by Prolog, the exported predicates would need to be called using the `Module:Call` notation but the converted module will be calling them through message sending. Thus, this feature ensures that, on a module compiled as an object, any predicate calling other module predicates will work as expected either these other modules are loaded as-is or also compiled as objects.

For more details, see the Calling Prolog predicates section.